Ukuzimisela-athom kunye iimolekyuli. Ingcaciso ye atom de-1932

Ukuqalisa ukusuka kwixesha lamandulo ukuya phakathi kwenkulungwane ye-18, inzululwazi yayisonganyelwa ingcinga yokuba atom - ilungu zenkqunto abangenakwahlulelana. IsiNgesi sesayensi semvelo, kunye D. wayeseDalton wanikela inkcazelo ye-atom njengoko inxalenye incinane element wemichiza. MV Lomonosov in emfundisweni zayo atom ezinto wakwazi ukunika inkcazo ye atom kunye molecule. Wayeqiniseka ukuba molecule, koko wathi "corpuscles", esakhiwa "iziqalelo" - athom - yaye sihamba rhoqo.

D. I. Mendeleev babekholelwa ukuba le enganeno izinto ezakha ihlabathi eziphathekayo, kugcina zonke iipropati yawo kuphela xa kaloku abawuthobeli lwahlulo. Kweli nqaku, senza ukuchaza into nje sekuba lwe-atom, kwaye bafunde iimpawu zayo.

Imvelaphi ye le ngcamango isakhiwo atomic

Ngenkulungwane ye-19, kucingelwa zinakanwa kwingxelo kwi-hluleki atom. izazinzulu ezininzi babekholelwa ukuba amasuntswana elinye chemical element phantsi kwazo naziphi na iimeko ayikwazi kuguqulwa atom zezinye izinto. Le mibono isiseko apho esekelwe kwinkcazelo atom de-1932. Ngenkulungwane ye-19 sele zesayensi wenza ezifunyaniswe esisiseko ukuba awuyitshintshanga le mbono. Kuqala kwinto zonke, ngowe-1897 yamachiza British J. J. Thomson abeyifumene electron. Le nyaniso Ikakhulu watshintsha izimvo izazinzulu 'malunga inxalenye ayahlukahlukenanga ye element kwemichiza.

Indlela ukungqina ukuba isakhiwo esimbaxa atom

Phambi kokufunyanwa electron , izazinzulu ngamxhelo uyavuma ukuba athom akukho ntlawulo. Emva koko, kwafunyaniswa ukuba elektroni lula ahluka nayiphi imichiza element oyifunayo. Ukuba inokufumaneka, siselangatyeni, ukuba abathwali umbane, baya kukhupha izinto ngexesha radiation x-reyi.

Kodwa ukuba electron ziyinxenye yazo zonke ngaphandle kokukhetha, kunye athom kakubi ityala, ngoko, xa i-atom kukho ezinye amasuntswana ukuba uqinisekile ukuba isimangalo entle, kungenjalo athom ngeke abe kagesi ngoondilele. Ukunceda ukuqhekeka isakhiwo atom kuye kwanceda into ebonakalayo njengoko yemisebe. Oku kunike ingcaciso echanekileyo-atom physics, uze chemistry.

Imisebe ezingabonakaliyo

French yemvelo A. Becquerel waba ngowokuqala ukuba bachaze ngxaki yokusetyenziswa ukuphuma athom ezithile imichiza, abangaboniyo imitha ezingabonakaliyo. Bona ionize lokuphumelela umoya ukuba wonke umbandela, ebangela blackening lezitya lokushicilela. Kamva, le Curies kunye Rutherford wafumanisa ukuba izinto radioactive senziwa similise atom ezinye imichiza (ezifana uranium - neptunium).

radiation Radioactive into nonuniform kumafa: amasuntswana alpha, amasuntswana beta, gamma. Ngoko ke, lo mkhuba radioactivity kwabonisa ukuba lwezakhi lweziqalelo amasuntswana abe isakhiwo ezintsonkothileyo. Le nto yabangela utshintshiwe kwenkcazo atom. Yintoni Amasuntswana na i-atom, enikwa yi uRutherford wafumana izibakala zenzululwazi omtsha? Impendulo yalo mbuzo yaba imodeli olucetywayo umphengululi wenyukliya le-atom, ngokutsho apho ngeenxa electron isiqalo kakuhle-icala ukuhamba.

model eziphikisanayo Rutherford

Ingcamango ISAZINZULU, nangona umlinganiswa yayo ebalaseleyo, ayikwazanga cala ukuchaza atom. Iziphumo bayo baba saphule imithetho esisiseko obizwa, njengako apho zonke electron Bajikeleza eziba balahlekelwe amandla zabo, njengoko kusenokuba, kungekudala emva koko kufuneka kuwa kuye. Atom kulo mzekelo kutshatyalaliswa. Oku okunene akunjalo, ekubeni iikhemikhali amasuntswana apho zenziwe, zikhona kwindalo ixesha elide. Ngokuyinqaba ingaphezulu ukuzimisela ezisekelwe kwi kwithiyori Rutherford, kwakunye isenzeko ukuba kwenzeka xa bedlula izinto kushushu ezilula usebenzisa diffraction uthango. Emva spectra atomic kwenziwa ngexesha elinye kufuneka imilo yomgama. Oku nosompempe kunye Rutherford imodeli ye-atom, njengoko apho spectrum kuya kufuneka ukuba okuqhubekayo. Ngokutsho ingqiqo ubucukubhede quantum, electron abakhoyo ngumongo hayi luphawulwa njengezinto indawo kwakunye ukuba ifomu efini electron.

Uninzi mninzi wayo kuwela ezithile isithuba esirhangqe ngumongo, kwaye zithathwa ukuba ekuyo isuntswana ngexesha elinikiweyo. Kwakhona, kufunyaniswe ukuba atom, electron zicwangciswe ngokwemaleko. Inani lamanqanaba nga kumiselwa ukwazi inani kwixesha apho element kwi Periodic D. I. Mendeleeva System. Umzekelo, i-atom phosphorus iqulethe electron 15 kwaye amanqanaba amathathu amandla. Isalathisi, leyo ligqiba inani amaqondo amandla kuthiwa inani inqununu quantum.

Kuye kwamiselwa ngokomfuniselo ukuba amandla umgangatho elektroni, zibekwe kufutshane undoqo, babe namandla liphantsi. shell amandla nganye yahlulwe-amanqanaba nkqutyana, yaye, bona, phezu orbitals. Elektroni zisendaweni orbitals ezahlukeneyo kuba amafu ifomu enye (s, p, d, f).

Ngokusekelwe kule nkcazelo ingasentla, kulandela ukuba imilo efini electron asinakuba ngokwesigqibo esicalanye. It uzimisele ngokungqongqo Orbital inani quantum. Songeza ukuba imeko electron ukuya kwamaqondo eparticulate kwakhona kugqitywa amaxabiso amabini - Imagnethi yomhlaba kunye ukujija amanani quantum. Lokuqala esekelwe kwi Schrodinger quadratic kwaye ubonakalise orientation komhlaba efini electron ngokusekelwe kwi-dimensionality ezintathu ihlabathi lethu. Isalathisi yesibini - inani spin kuwo ukugqiba ukujikeleza electron ehlabathini axis layo okanye ikhawunta-yexesha.

Ukufunyanwa kwe neutron

Ngokusebenzisa umsebenzi D. Chadwick, ukubabamba ngowe-1932, yaye anikwe inkcazelo entsha ye atom kwi chemistry yemvelo. Ekuhloleni zabo lwenzululwazi wangqina ukuba i cleavage kwenzeka ಪೇನ್ ipheyini radiation okubangelwa amasuntswana ngokuba ngaphandle kwentlawulo, ubunzima 1,008665. A yamasuntswana entsha eziziziqalelo ogama neutron. ukubhaqa nesifundo lweepropati yayo bayo ukuba izazinzulu Soviet V. Gapon kunye Ivanenko ukudala ingcamango entsha isakhiwo ngumongo atom, equlethe protons kunye neutron.

Ngokutsho ingcamango entsha, nokumisela le nto i-atom ilandelayo ukwenza iyunithi noshowo isiqalelo imichiza, kuqulethe core equlathe protons, neutron kunye electron ihamba ngeenxa zonke. Inani amasuntswana HIV ngumongo usoloko lilingane inani ngokokuma kwento le isiqalelo kwemichiza kule nkqubo ngamaxesha athile.

Kamva UNjingalwazi Zhdanov ukuhlola babembona ukuba phantsi kweempembelelo radiation nzima yesiqalo, nuclei atom mazahlulwe zibe protons kunye neutron. Ngaphezu koko, kuye kwabonakala ukuba imikhosi uphethe la masuntswana aphantsi kwi nucleus, kuba kakhulu umbane kakhulu. Benza kwi imigama emifutshane kakhulu (malunga nama-10 ^-23 cm), ebizwa nuclear. Njengoko kuchaziwe ngaphambili, ngu-MV Lomonosov wakwazi ukunika inkcazo ye atom kunye zinemoletyhule ngokusekelwe izibakala zenzululwazi eyaziwa kuye.

Kungoku waqaphela cinga imodeli ilandelayo: atom iquka nucleus kunye electron ihamba alijikeleze umendo echazwe ngokungqongqo - orbitals. Elektroni ngexesha elifanayo ukubonisa iimpawu zombini amasuntswana kunye namaza, oko kukuthi, enemo ezimbini. Yingxenye ye atom buzinze phantse bonke ubunzima bayo. It iqulathe protons kunye neutron ezinxulumene kunye nemikhosi zenyukliya.

Nokuba kunokwenzeka ukuba bahlaziye atom

Kubonakala ukuba atom ngamnye enobunzima. Umzekelo, ukuba hydrogen 1,67h10 ^-24 ndazalelwa kunzima ukucinga amancinci ngayo eli xabiso. Ukuze ufumane ubunzima into, musa ukusebenzisa izikali, kwaye oscillator, nto ke leyo nanotube carbon. Ukubala ubunzima atom kunye molecule ngakumbi ubuninzi olula ubunzima isalamane. Ibonisa ukuba zingaphi izihlandlo ubunzima zinemoletyhule okanye i-atom ngaphezu 1/12 le-atom carbon, nto leyo 1,66h10 ^-27 kg. izihlwele atomic Relative zinikwe ngamaxesha itheyibhile imichiza, yaye akukho obubodwa.

Izazinzulu azi kakuhle ukuba ubunzima atomic le element kwemichiza - ngumlinganiselo inani ngobuninzi izinto ezineeathom ezilinganayo. Kuyabonakala, xa uhlobo isahluko element zekhemikhali abe ezinobunzima obahlukeneyo. Ngaloo izigxina eziba eso siphawulo noshowo efanayo.

Izazinzulu ziye zafumanisa ukuba izinto ezineeathom ezilinganayo kwahluka kwinani neutron kwi nucleus kunye eziba bayalelwe twatse. Umzekelo, i-atom yeKhlorini, ukuba ubunzima 35 eziqulathwe neutron 18 kunye protons-17, yaye esinobunzima ka 37 - 20 protons kunye neutron 17. izinto ezininzi yamachiza umxube wezinto izinto ezineeathom ezilinganayo. Ngokomzekelo, izinto ezilula ezifana potassium, argon, oxygen equlethwe athom yayo kokwakhiwa emele 3 Isotope ezahlukeneyo.

Guquka atomicity

Kuye ukutolika eziliqela. Khawuve oko kuthethwa ngalo gama chemistry. Ukuba atom into ngamachiza khona ubuncinane okomzuzwana zodwa, ngaba bekungayi ukwenza amasuntswana ezintsonkothileyo - molekyuli, ngoko esiya kuthi, ukuba izinto ezinjalo zibe isakhiwo atomic. Umzekelo, multi-isigaba chlorination reaction methane. Lisetyenziswa kwi chemistry ephilayo esiyenziwe ukuba ezinkulu yezabelo halogen: dichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride. Oku gqiphu iimolekyuli zeklorini athom ukuba reactivity eliphezulu. Konakalisa imixokelelwane sigma kwi kwemolekyuli methane, ngokubonelela ukusabela chain kufakwe.

Omnye umzekelo imichiza ukuba yayibaluleke kakhulu kwishishini - ukusetyenziswa iperoksayidi yehidrojeni njenge arhente ntsholongwane kunye mhlophe. Ukuzimisela ioksijini atom njenge imveliso cleavage hydrogen peroxide lufumaneka iiseli eziphilayo (yi enzyme catalase), kwaye elabhoratri. oksijini Atomic ngokomgangatho kumiselwa ngeempawu zalo antioxidant kunye nokukwazi kwabo atshabalalise arhente yayintsholongwane eyosulela: Iintsholongwane, umngundo kunye sikuyo zabo.

Indlela imvulophu nuclear

ngaphambili siye safumanisa ukuba iyunithi noshowo into wemichiza na isakhiwo ezintsonkothileyo. Ehlabathini amasuntswana isiqalo kakuhle-ebizwayo zijikeleza electron ezimbi. I-Nobel Prize Niels Bohr, ngokusekelwe kwithiyori quantum yokukhanya, wadala mfundiso, apho abalinganiswa kunye nokuchongwa athom zezi zilandelayo: electron ngokujikeleza ngumongo kuphela iindlela ezithile ilungiswe kulo mzekelo musa ziveza amandla. Bohr, izazinzulu ziye zabonisa ukuba amasuntswana le microworld, ezibandakanya athom kunye iimolekyuli musa ukuthobela imithetho esebenzayo wamaziko ezinkulu - izinto macrocosm.

Ubume kweqokobhe electron of particulates kuye kufundwe amaphepha izazinzulu physics quantum ezifana Hund, uPauli Klechkovskii. Ekubeni ke oko kwazeka ukuba electron yenza isindululo ojikelezayo ehlabathini ngumongo ayikho umbhodamo, kodwa umendo ezithile ezisisigxina. UPauli wafumanisa ukuba ngaphakathi inqanaba lamandla olunye nganye orbitals s ayo, p, d, f kwizisele elektroniki inokuba akukho amasuntswana ngaphezu ezimbini kakubi icala yexabiso ukujikeleza malunga + ½ kunye - ½.

ulawulo Hund wachaza ukuba ukuzalisa orbitals electron kunye kwinqanaba elifanayo amandla.

Aufbau simiso, ebizwa kwakhona ulawulo n + l, chaza indlela orbitals kuzaliswa multielectron athom (izakhi 5, 6, 7 imijikelo). Zonke ezi regularities ngasentla wakhonza njengesiseko theoretical component imichiza owadalwa Dmitriem Mendeleevym.

degree igcwala

It is a ingqiqo sibalulekileyo chemistry ichaza i-atom kwindawo molecule. Le nkcazelo yakutshanje iqondo igcwala ye atom ngolu hlobo lulandelayo: intlawulo yenziwa atom kwi molecule, apho kubalwa ngokususela iikhonsepthi zinemoletyhule kuphela nokwakheka ionic.

Igcwala lungabonakaliswa yi elipheleleyo okanye inani iqhezu, a amaxabiso alungayo, negative okanye uziro. Xa athom ezininzi imichiza ambalwa igcwala ithi. Umzekelo, nitrogen -3, -2, 0, +1,-phinde ngo 2, +3, +4, +5. Kodwa into enjalo, ezifana fluorine, kuzo zonke iikhompawundi sawo igcwala karhulumente omnye kuphela ilingana no -1. Ukuba thaca into elula, igcwala imeko yaso ka-zero. Oku ubungakanani imichiza lula ukuyisebenzisa ngenxa nokwahlulwa kwezinto kunye ukuchaza iimpawu zazo. Kwiimeko ezininzi, inqanaba igcwala le chemistry ezisetyenziswa ekuseteni up reactions zibalo redox.

Iimpawu athom

Ngenxa kwesayensi physics quantum, inkcazelo yakutshanje-atom, olusekelwe phezu ngemfundiso Ivanenko kunye Gapon E, zincediswa yi izibakala zenzululwazi ilandelayo. Ulwakhiwo isiqalo atom akawatshintshi ngexesha abasabela imichiza. Utshintsho ichaphazela kuphela orbitals electron zokubhala. isakhiwo zabo ingabalelwa ezininzi iipropati emzimbeni imichiza nezinto. Ukuba electron ishiya orbit zokubhala azifihle Orbital kunye lwamandla atom aphezulu kuthiwa yimincili.

Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba electron ayinakuba ixesha elide kwezi orbitals non-core. Ukubuyela orbit zokubhala, electron, ikhala umyinge wemali amandla. Uphando lweempawu ezinjalo iiyunithi noshowo imichiza njengoko electron noFaro, electronegativity, amandla ionization, eye wavumela izazinzulu kungekuphela nje ukuchaza atom njengento yamasuntswana sekuba kubalulekile, kodwa wavumela ukuba achaze amandla athom ukwenza urhulumente ezinzileyo ngenkuthalo ngecala ngemolekyula zenkqunto, ngenxa yokuba kunokwenzeka ekudaleni naluphi na uhlobo ezinzile iibhondi kwemichiza: ionic, covalent-polar kunye apolar, donor-acceptor (neentlobo covalent lib) kunye m etallicheskoy. Le yokugqibela umisela iimpawu zibalulekileyo emzimbeni lwemichiza zesinyithi.

Kuye kwamiselwa ngokomfuniselo ukuba ubungakanani i-atom ziyahluka. Bonke baya kuxhomekeka molecule apho ifakiwe. Ngenxa X-ray Uhlalutyo diffraction Ungabala umgama phakathi atom kwi ezimbaxa imichiza, kwakunye ukufunda radius unit isakhi. Ekubeni iipateni shintsho radii ezi athom equlathwe kwithuba okanye iqela imichiza, kunokwenzeka ukuba ukuqikelela iipropati zabo ngokwasemzimbeni imichiza. Ngokomzekelo, kumaxesha kunye ukwandisa ingxenye atomic ityala radii nokuncipha kwabo ( "ucinezelo atom"), kwaye ke ngoko buthathaka iimpawu ebuntsimbi imichiza, kunye nonmetallic ziyanyuswa.

Ngenxa yoko, ulwazi ngesakhiwo ye atom unako ukugqiba ngokuchanileyo iimpawu zomzimba imichiza zonke izinto ifakiwe kwinkqubo ngamaxesha lweziqalelo.