Chemistry: basic concepts, iinkcazelo, imiqathango kunye nemithetho

Chemistry, nezimaphambili ezingundoqo esinokucinga - kukuba isayensi ufunda izinto kunye utshintshwano zabo zisenzeka kunye notshintsho kubume kunye nokwakhiwa, kwaye yiyo loo propati. Okokuqala, kufuneka uchaze ukuba lithetha ukuthini eli gama ezifana "kweziyobisi". Ukuba sithethe ngendlela ebanzi, kuba luhlobo zenkqunto inobunzima lokuphumla. Iziyobisi yiyo nayiphi yamasuntswana samabanga aphantsi, umzekelo, neutron. Xa chemistry, eli gama lisetyenziswa ngokwengqiqo kwezi mpawu zingasentla.

Ukuqala ngenkcazelo emfutshane imiqathango eziphambili kunye concepts of chemistry, theory atom-eziphilayo. Emva koko, siya uchaze kubo, kwakunye lakalokunje imithetho ebalulekileyo kwale nzululwazi.

nezimaphambili ezingundoqo of chemistry (mba, athom, iimolekyuli) bayazazi sonke esikolweni. Ngezantsi kukho inkcazo emfutshane kubo, kwakunye nezinye, ngokwemiqathango ngaphantsi ezicacileyo kunye nezimo.

atom

Kuqala kwinto zonke, nazo zonke izinto ezo ifundwa chemistry, eyakhiwa ngamasuntswana amancinci, ebizwa atom. Neutron awunguye into efanayo yokufunda kwale nzululwazi. Kufuneka kwakhona wathi athom onokumanyanisa kunye namanye, ngaloo ndlela yokutshata imichiza. Ukuze oyise lo uxhulumaniso, inkcitho eyimfuneko amandla. Ngoko ke, i-atom kwiimeko eziqhelekileyo azikho ngamnye (ngaphandle "igesi amanene"). Bona ahlangene nezinye ubuncinane ngababini.

ukuhamba Continuous thermal

motion thermal okuqhubekayo amasuntswana luphawulwa yonke loo chemistry ukufunda. Nezimaphambili ezingundoqo kule inzululwazi ukuchaza, musa ukuthetha ngako. Ngentshukumo eqhubekayo avareji yamandla agciniweyo kukuba ngokomlinganiselo lobushushu kwisuntswana (nangona kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba amandla kwi amasuntswana ezahlukeneyo ekhethekileyo). Ekin = KT / 2, apho k - yi Boltzmann kaThixo rhoqo. Le yokubala isebenza naluphi na uhlobo intshukumo. Ekubeni Tkin = MV ^2/2, isindululo kwamasuntswana omkhulu ngokucothayo. Umzekelo, ukuba ubushushu iyafana, kwemolekyuli mpilo ngokomyinge hambisa amaxesha 4 ingacota kunendlela iimolekyuli carbon. Oku kungenxa yokuba ubunzima yabo ngaphezu kwezihlandlo ezingama-16. Intshukumo jinga, translational kunye ejikelezayo. Jinga waphawula nezinto ulwelo aqinileyo, kwaye sukube. Kodwa translational kunye ukujikeleza ngokulula kakhulu kwenziwa igesi. Xa ulwelo, kunzima ngakumbi, yaye eziqinileyo - kubenzima ngakumbi.

molecule

Siyaqhubeka ukuchaza nezimaphambili ezingundoqo kunye neenkcazelo of chemistry. Ukuba atom zibekwe ngolandelelwano lwe-nye, ukwakha iqela elincinane (ekuthiwa molekyuli), amaqela ezinjalo bayabandakanyeka isindululo thermal, esebenza njengeyunithi. Ukuya ku 100 atom akhoyo molekyuli ezithile, kunye nenombolo yabo babizwa ngokuba iikhompawundi eliphezulu-ezinto kunokuba ukuya ku 105.

izinto non-ezinto

Noko ke, atom amathuba amaninzi zidityaniswa kwinani enkulu bands ukusuka 107 ukuya 1027. Kule fomu ukuba phantse akukho kuphinda inxaxheba isindululo thermal. Ezi ziye zifana nganto molecule. Bona kakhulu ezifana a eqinileyo. Ezi zinto kuthiwa non-eziphilayo. Kulo mzekelo, esi sindululo thermal yenziwa ngaphakathi iqhekeza, yaye inokubhabha ngathi molecule. Kukho ummandla lotshintsho kunye nobukhulu, leyo ebandakanya imibutho yabhalwa-athom xa isixa ukusuka 105 ukuya 107. Ezi zibe nokuba molekyuli zinkulu kakhulu okanye iinkozo ezincinane powder.

ion

Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba athom kunye namaqela ilifa i kagesi. Kulo mzekelo zibizwa ion kule inzululwazi, ngathi chemistry, nezimaphambili ezingundoqo apho siya ukufunda. Ekubeni iindleko ezifana kusoloko ukubuyiselana, into leyo ekhoyo ezithile enkulu enye okanye ezinye iintlawulo ukuze zizinze. Izityholo ezimbi nezilungileyo zisoloko enye kwisithuba. Kodwa ngokubanzi, iyeza le kagesi cala. Qaphela ukuba izityholo ezijongwa elikhulu electrostatics, ngokwembono chemistry ezi okungenamsebenzi (at 105-1015 athom - 1e).

Izinto zokufunda in chemistry

Kuyimfuneko ukucacisa ukuba izinto zokufunda chemistry uNojaji nesenzeko, ababengengabo kuvela ntoni, ungazaphuli phantsi athom, kodwa uhlele kuphela, into enxulumene ngendlela entsha. Ezinye nezibopho ezaphukileyo, abanye kwakheka ngenxa yoko. Ngamanye amazwi, izinto ezintsha kuvela ukusuka atom kobokuqala kuhlanganiselo materials yokuqala. Ukuba atom, kunye Nendawo ongenekuzo ezikhoyo phakathi kwazo zigcinwa (umz, lo komphunga iikhompawundi emolekyuli), ezi nkqubo zinxulumene ekufundweni elide Chemistry kunye Ezinto Physics. Kwimeko apho athom akhiwa okanye ezaphukileyo, kuba ukufundisisa kumxholo physics yenyukliya okanye atomic. Nangona kunjalo, lo umda phakathi iikhemikhali kunye ophathekayo umehluko. Emva kokuba ukwahlulwa inzululwazi ibe ezinemiqathango eyahlukileyo, kanti nohlobo ebumbene. Ngoko, ulwazi ekhemisi luncedo kakhulu physics.

nezimaphambili ezingundoqo of chemistry nathi ngokufutshane zibekiwe. Ngoku sinikele ukuba bacinge ngazo.

Funda kabanzi atom

Athom kunye iimolekyuli - kukhona abantu abaninzi chemistry nabo. nezimaphambili ezingundoqo, ezo kufuneka kuchazwe ngokucacileyo. Into yokuba kukho athom, kwiminyaka engamawaka amabini eyadlulayo, yaba stroke buchopho ukuze bangazi. Emva koko, ngenkulungwane ye-19, izazinzulu baba data wokulinga (noko ngqo). Sithetha kubudlelwane ezininzi Avogadro imithetho ukwakheka rhoqo (ngezantsi sijonga la magama esisiseko of chemistry). Atom kuqhubeka ukuba uhlole kwinkulungwane yama-20, xa kwakukho sele eninzi ubungqina ngqo uvavanyo. Busekelwe phezu spectroscopy, kuba ukusasazeka kwe-X reyi, amasuntswana alpha, neutron, elektroni, njl Ubukhulu ezi amasuntswana imalunga 1 E = 1 ° ^-10 m Ubunzima ka - .. nama-10 ^-27 - 10 ^-25 kg. Embindini amasuntswana kuba kakuhle icala core kuyo electron abafudukela intlawulo ezimbi. ubukhulu kernel-10 ukuya ^kwi-15 m. Kubonakala ukuba kugqiba ubungakanani electron iqokobhe-atom, kodwa lo mzekelo ubunzima bayo buzinze phantse ngokupheleleyo ngumongo. Enye inkcazelo kufuneka kwaziswe, ucinga nezimaphambili ezingundoqo of chemistry. element Chemical - uhlobo-athom, nesigxina yingxenye ye into efanayo.

Idla kwenzeka ukuzimisela atom nje into imizuzu yamasuntswana afana ebumbene. Indlela ukuqonda "yamachiza"? Njengoko sele sibonile, ukwahlula-hlulwa izenzakalo probation ngokwasemzimbeni imichiza. Kodwa ke ubukho-athom. Ngoko ke, ukuba ukujonga imichiza ngcono ngabo, yaye hayi vice versa, i-atom nge chemistry.

gqithisela

Oku kwenzelwa ukuba athom zibanjwa kunye. It akavumi ukuba ihambe bucala phantsi kwempembelelo sesindululo thermal. Nazi iimpawu eziphambili neentambo - kude internuclear namandla. Oku kwakhona nezimaphambili ezingundoqo of chemistry. Ubude bond tiyimisele ngokomfuniselo nge ngokuchanekileyo ngokwaneleyo phezulu. Energy - nayo, kodwa akubi njalo. Umzekelo, akunakwenzeka ukuba ukufumanisa cala yintoni na ngokubhekiselele unxibelelwano eyahlukileyo molecule entsonkothileyo. Noko ke, amandla atomization le into efunekayo ukuze ndaphule zonke amakhonkco ezikhoyo usoloko uzimisele. Ukwazi ubude uxhulumaniso, uyakwazi ngawaphi athom oxhulumene (banalo umgama omfutshane), yaye yintoni - akukho (umgama elide).

Inani Ukusebenzisana nolungelelaniso

nezimaphambili ezingundoqo of chemistry yohlalutyo iquka la magama mabini. Athetha ntoni? Kodwa nantsi eyona nyaniso.

Inombolo nolungelelaniso linani abamelwane ekufutshane loo atom ethile. Ngamanye amazwi, inani labo nguye kunxulumene afana. Uququzelelo na isikhundla macala, uhlobo kunye nenani nabamelwane. Ngamanye amazwi, le mbono ngakumbi. Umzekelo, inani nolungelelaniso-nitrogen molekyuli uphawu ammonia kunye ne-nitric acid, ngokufanayo - 3. Nakuba kunjalo, kufuneka ulungelelaniso ezahlukeneyo - is non-Planar kwaye iflethi. Oku kumiselwa nokuba zezaluphi na uhlobo ukudibanisa phakathi zimvo, kanti urhulumente igcwala kunye Valence ka - umba ezinemiqathango, ezidaliweyo ukuze phambili ukuqikelela uququzelelo kunye nokwakheka.

Guquka molecule

Sele yachukumisa kule mbono, ucinga nezimaphambili ezingundoqo kunye nemithetho of chemistry ngokufutshane. Ngoku kuhlala phezu kwayo iinkcukacha ngakumbi. Kwiincwadi ukuzimisela rhoqo kwemolekyuli njengoko amasuntswana into esezantsi cala, nto leyo eye iimpawu zayo ngamachiza, kwaye khona ngokuzimeleyo. Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba le nkcazo ngoku aphume umhla. Okokuqala, kukuba zonke yemvelo kunye ekhemisi zithetha zinemoletyhule, iipropati kweziyobisi lungagcineki. Amanzi dissociates, kodwa ufuna molekyuli ubuncinane 2. The degree of dissociation amanzi - 10 ^-7. Ngamanye amazwi, le nkqubo ixhomekeke kwenye molecule kuphela ye-10 ezigidi. Ukuba zinemoletyhule enye, okanye kukho imihla elikhulu elinamanci, awukwazi ukufumana ufifi dissociation yayo. Into yokuba iziphumo wobushushu yokusabela kwemichiza ziquka ngokubanzi amandla intsebenziswano phakathi iimolekyuli. Ngoko ke, abanako zifumaneka omnye kubo. Neempawu chemical ngokwasemzimbeni kwezinto eziphilayo nga kumiselwa kuphela liqela elikhulu iimolekyuli. Ukongeza, kukho arhente abakwaziyo khona ngokwabo, "zincinane" kwisuntswana ngokungenammiselo ezinkulu ezahlukeneyo gqitha iimolekyuli oluqhelekileyo. Le molecule ngokuyimfuneko liqela athom azikho kagesi. Kwimeko ethile, kunokuba atom mnye, umzekelo, Ne. Eli qela kufuneka abe nako ukuthatha inxaxheba ephambili kule kwe-, kwakunye kwezinye iintlobo motion thermal, esebenza njengeyunithi.

Njengoko ubona, ayikho ingqiqo elula ezisisiseko chemistry. Le molecule - into ekufuneka ziqwalaselwe ngononophelo. Kuye iimpawu zayo, kunye nobunzima eziphilayo. Ngalo yokugqibela ngoku sixoxe.

isiphumlisi

Indlela ukufumanisa ubunzima beemolekyuli yo karhi? Enye indlela - ngokusekelwe umthetho Avogadro kaThixo, lexinene isalamane zomphunga. Eyona ndlela ichanekileyo na spectrometry abaninzi. Electron yeni kwemolekyuli. Ion engumphumela kuqala saa esigangeni sombane uze baphambuke yi umendo wayo ngemagnethi. Kwentlawulo ratio ngobuninzi ixhomekeke ubukhulu nokutenxa kokumiselweyo. Kukwakho iindlela ezisekelwe kwiipropati ube izisombululo. Nangona kunjalo molecule zonke ezi meko kufuneka nakanjani babe kwisenzeko - in umxube vacuo lube yirhasi. Ukuba zingahambi, akunakwenzeka ukuba babale cala ubunzima lwabo. Kwaye ubukho babo kakhulu kule meko kuba nzima ukubona.

Iimpawu kwezinto non-ezinto

Ukuthetha ngabo bathi iqanjwa athom, hayi iimolekyuli. Nangona kunjalo, le meko injalo ngokumalunga yeegesi amanene. Ezi athom ukuhamba ngokukhululekileyo, ngoko bacinga ngcono iimolekyuli zabo monohydric. Nangona kunjalo, oku kubalulekile. Kubalulekile ukuba izinto non-eziphilayo, kukho ezininzi athom, eziqhagamshelwe kunye. Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba ukwahlulwa zonke izinto kwi ezinto and non-ezinto ayonelanga. Kwisahlulo udibaniso ngakumbi. ,, Cinga umahluko iimpawu grafayithi nedayimani. Zombini ezi carbon, kodwa owokuqala - soft, kwaye eyesibini - into eqinileyo. Njani kwahluka enye kwenye? Umahluko nje kuqhagamshelwano lwabo. Xa siqwalasela isakhiwo grafayithi, siyakwazi ukubona ukuba ikhona kuphela ubudlelwane obuluqilima ezinemilinganiselo emibini. Kodwa imigama interatomic ezibalulekileyo kakhulu yesithathu, ngoko ke, kukho isibopho. Grafayithi Kulula isiliphu yaye ukwahlula ecaleni ezi zoleko.

isakhiwo connectivity

Kungenjalo, ibizwa ngokuba ukubangezela. Umele inani zobukhulu bendawo, ungachazwa ukuba ezi (phantse engenasiphelo) inkqubo skeleton (unxulumano olomeleleyo) oluqhubekayo. Amaxabiso ukuba ungathatha, - 0, 1, 2 no-3 Ngoko ke, kuyimfuneko ukuba ukwahlula emithathu ukusuka ku-dimensionally idityaniswe, laminates, neziqithi chain (molecule) isakhiwo.

UMthetho siswele ethile

Sele sifundile nezimaphambili ezingundoqo of chemistry. Le nkcazelo iye ngokufutshane ingqalelo yi kuthi. Ngoku xelela malunga nomthetho apho isebenza khona. Kudla kubhaliwe uqulunqe ngolu hlobo lulandelayo: naliphi na icandelo elinye (ngamanye amazwi, ezicocekileyo), kungakhathaliseki indlela yayifunyenwe, uye ubume efanayo ubunjani kunye neenkcukacha zamanani. Kodwa ntoni ingqikelelo "kweziyobisi esulungekileyo '? Kodwa nantsi eyona nyaniso.

Kwiminyaka engamawaka amabini eyadlulayo, xa ayikwazi ukuba iindlela ezininzi ngqo ukufunda xa kwakungekho nkqu iikhonsepthi yemichiza ezisisiseko kunye nemithetho of chemistry, eziqhelekileyo kuthi isakhiwo izinto, kumisiweyo descriptively. Umzekelo, amanzi - yinto engamanzi eyenza isiseko kweelwandle nemilambo. Kuye akukho ivumba, umbala, incasa. It has sezingeni yokunyibilika kunye neGauteng a, ukususela oko blue sulfate zezobhedu. Ityuwa amanzi kuba uhlambulukile nto. Noko ke, iityuwa ingahlulwa ulwelo. Njengalo, indlela ezichazayo, wazimisela iikhonsepthi yemichiza esisiseko kunye nemithetho of chemistry.

Kuba izazinzulu ngelo xesha ke ayicacanga ukuba ulwelo kubalaseliswe ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo (ngokutshiswa hydrogen sulfate emzimbeni, amanzi olwandle neyanamhlanje), unalo kuqamba efanayo. ukufunyanwa Great zesayensi yaba ubungqina oku. Kuye kwacaca ukuba umlinganiselo oksijini yehayidrojini alunako ukutshintshwa kakuhle. Oku kuthetha ukuba izinto luqulathe athom - izabelo ebumbene. Ngoko iikhompawundi formula zalungiselelwa, kwaye kananjalo esivakalayo izazinzulu ukumelwa iimolekyuli.

Kule mihla nayiphi na into esimiselwe ngokuvakalayo okanye kakhulu othi kunokuba yokunyibilika, incasa okanye umbala. Water - H ₂ O. Ukuba kukho ezinye iimolekyuli, kuya kuphinda kuba uhlambulukile. Ngenxa yoko, into molekyuli olusulungekileyo lowo elakhiwe ngekhaya elinye kuphela uhlobo iimolekyuli.

Noko ke, kule meko, kuba electrolytes? Ngapha koko, ziquka ion abakhoyo, iimolekyuli kuphela. Kufuneka ukuba sibe definition ngqongqo kakhulu. izinto eziphilayo olusulungekileyo lowo ubunjwe molecule uhlobo olunye, kunye mhlawumbi iimveliso ingathityazwa lwe beguqukele okukhawulezayo (imibutho isomerization, dissociation). Igama elithi "fast" kule meko kuthetha ukuba ezi mveliso, asinakukwazi sizohlukana, ke ngoko nangoko ivele. Igama elithi "ingathityazwa" libonisa ukuba ukuguqulwa zingahlanganiselwanga esiphelweni. Ukuba waziswe, ngoko ke kungcono ukuba sithi oko ezingazinzanga. Kule meko ayikho into enyulu.

Umthetho ukulondolozwa mass lomba

Lo mthetho uye ukususela kumaxesha amandulo eyaziwa ifomu Nakuba. Yathi ukuba lo mba awubunjwa kwaye ukungafi. Emva koko kwafika kuqulunqo yayo oluninzi. Ngokutsho oku, ubunzima (kwaye ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-17 - weight) ngumlinganiselo we isixa kweziyobisi.

Umthetho ngendlela njengesiqhelo yavulwa ngo-1748 Lomonosov. Ngowe ka1789, kuqhuba Lavoisier, isazinzulu French. Contemporary kuqulunqo wayo ngolu hlobo lulandelayo: ubunzima izinto ukungena abasabela imichiza ilingana ubunzima kwezinto ezibangelwa kuyo.

umthetho Avogadro kaThixo, umthetho womthamo ubudlelwane iigesi

Owokugqibela laliqulunqwe ngo-1808 yi-JL Gay-Lussac, isazinzulu French. Kungoku nje lo mthetho ubizwa ngokuba ngumthetho Gay-Lussac. Ngokutsho kuyo, umthamo zegesi yokusabela ukuba omnye komnye kwakunye nokuba umthamo kwisiphumo se iimveliso sukube nje amanani ezincinane yonke.

Pattern, awawenzayo, nokwafumanekayo Gay-Lussac, ucacisa umthetho, wawavulayo waye kancinane emva koko, ngo-1811, Amedeo Avogadro, sesayensi Italian. Ithi phantsi kweemeko alinganayo (kwengcinezelo kunye nobushushu) kwi yeegesi ukuba lomqulu, inani elifanayo iimolekyuli abakhoyo.

nemiphumela ezimbini ezibalulekileyo landela umthetho Avogadro. Eyokuqala siyifumana yokuba phantsi kweemeko ezifanayo, omnye nolovane nayiphi na igesi ohlala umthamo ngokulinganayo. Ukubana nokuba phantsi kweemeko eziqhelekileyo (ezo ubushushu 0 ° C kunye 101,325 kPa) Waba iilitha 22.4. Le isiphumo yesibini yalo mthetho ngolu hlobo lulandelayo: umlinganiselo ubunzima zegesi zokuba imali efanayo phantsi kweemeko olulinganayo, kulingana nomlinganiselo yabo mass izinyo.

Kukho omnye umthetho, ekufuneka ngokuqinisekileyo ukuba kuchazwe. Siya kukuxelela ngayo ngokufutshane.

umthetho ngamaxesha athile itheyibhile

D. I. Mendeleev, ezisekelwe phezu iimpawu imichiza lweziqalelo kunye neengcaphephe atom ezinto eyafumana lo mthetho. Esi siganeko senzeke Matshi 1, 1869 Periodic uMthetho yenye yezinto ezibalulekileyo yendalo. Kokuba kuchazwe ngolu hlobo lulandelayo: iimpawu izinto ukusekwa kwezinto ezinzima yaye ilula kwaye uxhomekeke ngamaxesha kwi izigxina eziba athom.

lwezakhi, leyo wadalwa yi Mendeleev, iqulathe amaxesha amisiweyo asixhenxe kunye namaqela ezisibhozo. Amaqela ebizwa imiqolo yayo nkqo. Elements ngaphakathi ngamnye kubo abe iipropati ezifanayo emzimbeni imichiza. Eli qela, nayo, yahlulwe sub-ngamaqela (ezingundoqo kunye kwicala).

Imiqolo tyaba kule theyibhile zibhekisela kwixesha. Izinto ezikwezo zinto, zahluke phakathi kwabo, kodwa ngazo - into yokuba elektroni yabo yakutshanje kwinqanaba elifanayo amandla. Kweli xesha lokuqala kukho izinto ezimbini kuphela. H ke hydrogen kunye helium yena. Iziqalelo zisibhozo ziba kwixesha yesibini. Xa yesine zabo sele 18. Mendeleev okhethwe eli xesha njengoko elikhulu kuqala. Xa izinto yesihlanu-18, isakhiwo sayo iyafana yesine. Njengenxenye yesithandathu - izakhi-32. Le yesixhenxe ayikagqitywa. Eli xesha luqala i-French (Fr). Kuthathwa ngokuthi kuya iimpawu zocalu-32, kwakunye wesithandathu. Noko ke, ukuza kuthi ga-24 kuphela Ayifumaneki.

umthetho otketa

Ngokommiselo otketa zonke izinto bakholisa ukufumana umsebenzi ovela okanye uphulukana nayo ukuze babe 8-electron uqwalaselo irhasi amanene elikufutshane nabo. Le ionization energy - sisixa eneji efunekayo ukuze ukwahlukanisa electron ukusuka atom. ulawulo Otketa uthi xa uhambisa ukusuka ekhohlo ukuya ekunene lwezakhi kufuneka amandla ukuze ususe ovela. Ngoko ke, izinto ukuba kwicala lasekhohlo, sifuna ukuqinisekisa ukuba ndinyobulule ovela. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, abo ebekwe kwicala lasekunene, belangazelela uyithenge.

Imithetho kunye neengqikelelo ezingundoqo of chemistry, siya ngokufutshane echazwe. Kakade ke, olu lulwazi ngokubanzi kuphela. Kwelinye inqaku akunakwenzeka ukuba ukuthetha malunga nenzululwazi elinzulu ngokweenkcukacha. nezimaphambili ezingundoqo kunye nemithetho of chemistry njengoko kuchaziwe kweli nqaku - yinto njengesiqalo bangaqhubela phambili. Ngapha koko, kule inzululwazi kukho amacandelo amaninzi. Kukho, umzekelo, organic kunye nobume nezingaphiliyo. nezimaphambili ezingundoqo nganye amacandelo esi inzululwazi kufundwa ixesha elide. Kodwa abo ezichazwe ngentla, yiya imiba jikelele. Ngoko ke, singatsho ukuba ezi nezimaphambili ezingundoqo organic chemistry, kwakunye ezingaphiliyo.