Imbali organic chemistry. Isifundo kunye nexabiso Chemistry Organic

Bambalwa abantu abacinga ngayo yintoni indima organic chemistry umphefumlo womntu mihla. Kodwa likhulu kakhulu, kunzima ukuba zazi. Ngentsasa elandelayo, xa umntu uvuka aye kuhlamba, nakuwo ngokuhlwa, xa esiya kulala, ngokuqhubekayo kunye iimveliso organic chemistry. Ibhrashi, impahla, iphepha, zokuthambisa, ifanitshala kunye design, nokuninzi - konke oku kusenza yona. Kodwa xa ke akunjalo, yaye eziphilayo chemistry ukuba abazi lutho.

Makhe sibone step indlela savela ngenyathelo imbali organic chemistry.

1. Ixesha wophuhliso de ngenkulungwane XIV, ebizwa zendalo.

2. XV - ngenkulungwane XVII - ekuqaleni uphuhliso okanye iatrochemistry alchemy.

3. Century XVIII - XIX - ukukhonya thiyori vitalism.

4. XIX - ngenkulungwane XX - yophuhliso esebenzisa amandla, sigaba zenzululwazi.

Qala okanye Isigaba yendalo yophuhliso organic chemistry

Esi sigaba iqulathe kanye ukuvela ingqikelelo imvelaphi imichiza. Kwaye imvelaphi aye emva kangangoko eRoma yamandulo kunye neYiputa, nto leyo ke abahlali bayakwazi kakhulu bafunda ukwenza idayi ukuba izinto imibala kunye neempahla kwimathiriyeli zendalo ekrwada - Amagqabi nezikhondo kwezityalo. Ngabo aba indigo, enika umbala eziblowu, kwaye alizorin luyawudyobha ngokoqobo zonke shades amanzi futhi enomtsalane ye-orenji kunye ebomvu. Ngokungaqhelekanga abemi nimble beentlanga ezahlukeneyo ngexesha elinye nabo bafunda indlela iviniga, ukwenza imimoya sucrose nestatshi-equlathe izinto imvelaphi zezityalo.

Yinto eyaziwayo ukuba ukutya aqheleka kakhulu isicelo eli thuba zembali baba amafutha ezilwanyana, amafutha kunye nentlaka ezisetyenziswa abapheki kunye nasemaxhweleni. Kwaye kubomi bemihla iityhefu ezahlukeneyo nabo ngokuqinileyo ubudlelwane isixhobo main vnutriusobnyh. Zonke ezi izinto zimveliso organic chemistry.

Kodwa ke, ngelishwa, njengoko enjalo, ingcamango "chemistry" ayisekho, kunye nofundo kwezinto ezithile ukuze kucaciswe iimpawu yaye akuzange kwenzeke kuqamba. Ngoko ke, eli xesha kuthiwa kulogo. Zonke izinto ezifunyaniswe ke ngequbuliso, uhlobo ingaqwalaselwa lwamaxabiso yabathengi. Oku kwaqhubeka de kwinkulungwane elandelayo.

iatrochemistry xesha - yophuhliso isiqalo ethembisayo

Eneneni, bekunjalo XVI - kwiinkulungwane XVII baqalisa kuvela imifanekiso ngqo of chemistry njenge inzululwazi. Ngokusebenzisa umsebenzi izazinzulu ezithile ixesha sele ifunyenwe izinto eziphilayo ceba izixhobo elula neyanamhlanje kunye sublimation kwezinto kusetyenziswa iimpahla yemichiza ekhethekileyo kwasani izinto ukuya kokwahlulwa zendalo iimveliso lwezithako.

Ingqwalasela ephambili xesha iyeza. Umnqweno ukufumana amayeza kuyimfuneko kukhokelele kwinto yokuba isityalo wema neeoli ezixabisekileyo kunye nezinye izithako ekrwada. Ngenxa yoko, uKarl Scheele zifunyenwe asidi eziliqela organic evela izinto yemifuno ekrwada:

• malic;
• lemon;
• mbobo;
• ubisi;
• oxalic.

Ngomhla isifundo yezityalo kunye nokwabiwa ezi asidi Scientist wathabatha iminyaka eli-16 (1769 ukuya 1785). Oku yayisisiqalo yophuhliso, wazibeka iziseko chemistry eziphilayo, nto leyo ngqo njengesebe of chemistry sele zichongiwe kwaye igama kamva (ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane XVIII).

Kwangaxesha nye kuMbindi GF wabalaselisa Rueil ziikristale of uric acid ukusuka urea. Ezinye ekhemisi succinic acid yafunyanwa evuthiweyo, tartaric acid. Xa ukusetyenziswa eqhelekileyo iquka indlela neyanamhlanje owomileyo zemathiriyeli izityalo kunye nezilwanyana, ngalo ifunyenwe acetic acid, diethyl iEtere, iinkuni utywala.

Ngoko ke waqalisa uphuhliso nzulu kushishino kwemichiza komgquba elizayo.

Vis vitalis, okanye "amandla obomi"

XVIII - XIX ngenkulungwane ye organic chemistry yi kakhulu buhlanti-ezimbini: kwelinye icala, kukho inani obafunyanwa ezinexabiso elikhulu. Kwelinye icala, ixesha elide, ukukhula kunye ukuqokelela ulwazi oluchanekileyo ezifanelekileyo izimvo elinganeno imfundiso olongamileyo vitalism.

Le ngcamango yavela echaza eziphambili UJens Jakobs Berzelius, ngelo xesha yena umnike, yaye inkcazelo organic chemistry (kunyaka ngqo ayaziwa, okanye 1807 okanye 1808). Ngokutsho imiqathango yalo mbono, izinto eziphilayo ukuze kwakheke kuphela eziphilayo (izityalo kunye nezilwanyana, kuquka abantu), njengoko eziphilileyo kuphela abe "amandla obomi," ekhethekileyo evumela ezi izinto zaveliswa. Nangona nezinto ezingaphiliyo ukufumana eziphilayo ngokupheleleyo ayinakwenzeka, ekubeni iimveliso engaphiliyo, non-olunokutsha, ngaphandle Vis vitalis.

Oosonzululwazi efanayo Ukuhlelwa yokuqala zonke ezaziwayo ngexesha le khompawundi kwi ezingaphiliyo (non-eziphilileyo, zonke izinto ezifana namanzi kunye netyuwa) organic (ubomi, abo efana namafutha omnquma kunye neswekile) kuye kwandululwa. Kwakhona Berzelius kuqala elijongene ngokukodwa ukuba chemistry organic ezinjalo. Ukuzimisela kwaba: icandelo of chemistry ukuba ufunda izinto ezivela eziphilayo.

Ngeli xesha, ngokulula izazinzulu yaphunyezwa uguqulo-oganikhi khompawundi ibe ezingaphiliyo, umz, yi komlilo. Nangona kunjalo, ithuba reconversion nantoni ingazeki okwangoku.

Isiphelo ubuya, ukuba umfundi UJens Berzelius Fridrih Veler negalelo ekuqaleni ekuweni thiyori utitshala wakhe.

Isazinzulu German besebenza iikhompawundi benqanda enye yemifuniselo lwenziwa ukufumana ziikristale ilawula Ngokufanayo uric acid. Ngenxa yoko, isifundo ngokucokisekileyo ngakumbi wafumana ukuba ngokwenene wakwazi ukufumana izinto eziphilayo ezivela ezingaphiliyo, ngaphandle Vis vitalis. Enoba sokuthandabuza Berzelius, kwanyanzeleka ukuba avume oku kuyinyaniso emsulwa. Ngoko ke kwaye kwasetyenzwa kuvuthelwa ukuya iimbono vitalistic kuqala. Imbali organic chemistry waqalisa ukuba kuzuze amandla.

Zininzi izinto ezifunyaniswe, vitalism otyunyuziweyo

Wohler Impumelelo eye waphefumlela ekhemisi zenkulungwane XVIII, ngoko waqalisa uvavanyo yande kunye amalinge ukuze afumane izinto eziphilayo in vitro. Ezo syntheses abalulekileyo kwaye okubaluleke kakhulu ziye eziliqela.

1. 1845 G. - Adolf Kolbe leyo umfundi Wohler, ilawula elula inorganics C, H _2, O ₂ kuyondelelaniswe multistage iyonke ukuze afumane acetic acid, nto leyo izinto eziphilayo.
2. 1812, Konstantinom Kirhgofom yaphunyezwa glucose kudibaniso evela starch kunye acid.
3. 1820 Anri Brakonno protein sisipirithi acid kunye koko ziphathwe kunye ne-nitric acid kunye umxube ingafumaneka asidi yokuqala 20 acid kuhlelwe kamva - glycine.
4. 1809 Michel Chevreul wafunda nokwakhiwa kwamafutha, ezama ukuba bahlukane zibe kumacandelo alo. Ngenxa yoko, wafumana okunamafutha acid kunye glycerol. 1854, Zhan Bertlo waqhubeka ukusebenza Chevrel glycerol kunye shushu kunye stearic acid. Isiphumo - amanqatha, kanye waphinda isakhiwo iikhompawundi zendalo. Kamva, wakwazi ukufumana kunye namanye amafutha kunye neeoyile, ezibe eyahlukileyo kancinane kubume ngemolekyula evela nucleoside zendalo. Oko kuboniswa amathuba yokufumana iikhompawundi ezintsha zomgquba kubaluleke kakhulu elabhoratri.
5. J. Berthelot kuhlelwe methane hydrogen emanzini (H ₂ S) kunye carbon disulfide (CS _2).
6. 1842 Zinin wakwazi nokulungelelanisa le aniline ukusuka nitrobenzene idayi. Kamva wakwazi ukufumana inani nedayi aniline.
7. A. Bayer kudala kwilebhu yaso, nto leyo eye kuyondelelaniswe esebenzayo kunye ngempumelelo iidayi organic, ezifana zendalo: alizarin, indigoid, antrohinonovye, xanthene.
8. 1846 Yindibanisela oosonzululwazi nitroglycerin Sobrero. Kwakhona waba iintlobo ithiyori, nto leyo ithi izinto ezifanayo kwezinye izinto ezingaphiliyo kwaye eziqulunqwe ngokuvuselela athom hydrogen kwisakhiwo.
9. 1861 A. M. Butlerov nangoku kuhlelwe of formalin. Bona ziqulunqwe amagatya theory lwesakhiwo lwemichiza oganikhi khompawundi ezinxulumene namhlanje.

Zonke ezi zinto ziye zafunyaniswa umbandela organic chemistry - carbon kunye nemixube yayo. Eminye ezifunyaniswe zigxininise indlela abantu abasabela kwemichiza organic chemistry, ukumisela uhlobo leendibano elektroniki, kwaye isakhiwo imichiza.

Isiqingatha sesibini sale XIX kunye XX ngenkulungwane - ixesha obafunyanwa chemical jikelele

Imbali chemistry zomgquba ngokuhamba kwexesha uye zonke iinguqu ezinkulu. Sebenza izazinzulu ezininzi phezu ezisebenza iinkqubo lwangaphakathi molekyuli, reactions kunye neendlela neziphumo echumayo. Ngoko ke, ngo-1857, Friedrich Kekule yaqulunqa ngobhalo Valence. Kwakhona bobabo ngokwemfanelo omkhulu - kokufunyanwa isakhiwo ezo molekyuli ye-hydrocarbon enuka kamnandi benzene. Ngelo xesha linye A. M. Butlerov yaqulunqa ingcamango ngesakhiwo ukuma iikhompawundi apho ibonisa ukuba tetravalence carbon kwaye isenzeko ubukho isomers, kunye isomers.

VV Markovnikov and A. M. Zaytsev sijonge isifundo iindlela abasabela ngayo izinto eziphilayo zize ziqulunqe iseti imithetho echaza ezi iindlela kunye uqinisekise. Ngowe-1873 - iminyaka 1875. I. Wislicenus, Van't Hoff kunye Le Bel ukufunda kwilungiselelo lwendawo-athom e iimolekyuli, ukutyhila ubukho sestiriyo-isomers, kwaye iminyanya yonke inzululwazi - stereochemistry. Abantu abaninzi ezahlukeneyo inxaxheba ekudalweni wentsimi organic chemistry, apho thina namhlanje. Ngoko ke, chemistry eziphilayo, izazinzulu ziyamangalisa.

Le ekupheleni XIX kunye XX kwinkulungwane - ixesha amazwe ehlabathini kushishino lamachiza, ishishini ipeyinti, chemistry quantum. Cinga kuvulwa, ukuqinisekisa xabiso liphezulu organic chemistry.

1. 1881 Conrad M. kunye M. Gudtseyt iintlungu kuhlanganiswa, acid veronal kunye salicylic.
2. 1883 L. Knorr wafumana antipyrine.
3. 1884 F. Stoll baqhawula pyramidon.
4. 1869 abazalwana Hyatt iphumelele ifayibha yokuqala eyenziwe ngumntu.
5. 1884 D. Eastman kuhlanganiswa celluloid film.
6. 1890 wafumana cuprammonium ifayibha L. Depassi.
7. 1891 Charles Cross kunye noogxa bakhe baqhawula rayon.
8. 1897 F. Miescher kunye Buchner waseka imfundiso igcwala eziphilayo (yafunyanwa ibile cell-free kunye nee-enzayim njengoko biocatalysts).
9. 1897 F. Miescher wafumanisa asidi acid.
10. Ukuqala lwekhulu XX - ukwakheka olutsha iikhompawundi organometallic.
11. 1917 Lewis wavula uhlobo ngekhompyutha neentambo ikhemikhali iimolekyuli.
12. 1931 Hückel - umsunguli iindlela quantum chemistry.
13. Of 1931-1933. Laymus Pauling ufaneleke ithiyori livakale, yaye kamva wakhe osebenza nabo zityhila undoqo oluhamba ekudibaneni kwemichiza.
14. 1936 nylon kuhlelwe.
15. Of 1930-1940. AE Arbuzov ekuchithekeni kuphuhliso ze-imichiza ezo isiseko ukuveliswa zeplastiki, namayeza afanelekileyo, izinambuzane.
16. 1960 Academician Nesmeyanov kunye nabafundi wadala ukutya yokuqala esiyenziwe elabhoratri.
17. 1963 Du Vinho insulin abafumana, nto leyo linyathelo elikhulu phambili amayeza.
18. 1968 Indian HG Qur'an wakwazi ukufumana isakhi elula owanceda xa ezama ikhowudi yezofuzo.

Ngenxa yoko, ukubaluleka organic chemistry kubomi babantu nje eyenziwe ngabantu. Iplastiki, iipholima, imicu, iipeyinti kunye ivanishi, irabha, irabha, izixhobo PVC, ezinepolypropylene kunye polyethylene, kunye nezinye izinto ezininzi mihla, ngaphandle apho namhlanje nje umphefumlo kunokwenzeka, indlela lunzima ukufunyanwa yayo. Amakhulu izazinzulu ziye kwiminyaka yabo yomsebenzi onzima, ngoko kwakukho imbali jikelele kuphuhliso organic chemistry.

Inkqubo wesimanje-oganikhi khompawundi

Ekubeni kwenziwe ngendlela omkhulu kwaye kunzima kuphuhliso organic chemistry, kwaye ngoku ukuma. Kukho ngaphezu kwama-10 Mill. Izixhobo, kwaye eli nani luyanda minyaka yonke. Ngoko ke, kukho isakhiwo ilungiselelo eyondeleleneyo lunezinto isinika chemistry organic. Ukuhlelwa oganikhi khompawundi linikwa kwi table.

Iklasi of iikhompawundi	iimpawu zezakhiwo	Le ndlela yokubala jikelele
Hydrocarbon (eyenziwe kuphela carbon yehayidrojini atom)	elizele (kuphela kelly ayikokubambana ngendlela.); unsaturated (kelly nonxibelelwano pi.); acyclic; Zijika.	Alkanes C n H 2n + 2; Alkenes, cycloalkanes C n H 2n; Alkynes, alkadienes, C n H 2n-2; Arena C 6 H 2n-6.
Substances equlathe atom ezahlukeneyo hetero kwiqela engundoqo	halogens; OH Iqela (alkoholi kunye phenols); kudweliswe neso- (glycol).	R-Hal; R-OH; Neso-.
zithako carbonyl	aldehydes; ketones; quinones.	RC (H) = O
Zithako equlethe iqela carboxyl	carboxylic acid; esters.	R-COOH; R-COOR.
Zithako eziqulathe isalfure, nitrogen okanye phosphorus kwi molecule	Ingaba Zijika okanye acyclic	-
iikhompawundi organometallic	Carbon yesondo ngqo ukuya kwelinye element, kodwa hayi hydrogen	C-E
iikhompawundi organometallic	Carbon banamathele intsimbi	Nge-Me
iikhompawundi heterocyclic	Kumjikelo isakhiwo-based kunye namalungu heteroatoms	-
zizinto zendalo	iimolekyuli Polymer Large ezakha ezintweni zemvelo	iiproteni, nucleic, acid, sezakhi kunye ezifana. d.
neeplastikhi	Substances ukuba ubunzima eliphezulu eziphilayo, ezo zisekelwe units monomeric	n (-RRR-)

Isifundo yonke ezahlukeneyo izinto abasabela ngazo bangene, kwaye isihloko organic chemistry namhlanje.

Iintlobo iibhondi imichiza nezinto eziphilayo

Ngayo nayiphi imichiza ebonakala intsebenziswano elektronnostaticheskie ngaphakathi molekyuli, leyo ichazwa phambi zomgquba covalent iibhondi polar and non-ezibandayo covalent. Le khompawundi organometallic kuyaba intsebenziswano buthathaka ionic.

Covalent zonxibelelwano nonpolar kwenzeka phakathi C-C ngokuhlanganisa zonke emvelo. Covalent ukwenzela polar iimpawu ye atom ezahlukeneyo-nonmetal kwi molecule. Umzekelo, C-Hal, CH, CO, CN, CP, CS. Oku kubangelwa zonke ukwakheka eziphilayo, kukho khona ukuze kwakhiwe iikhompawundi.

Nguqu kwi iikhompawundi le fomyula imveliso zomgquba,

Le fomyula zixhaphakileyo ukuba inani lamalungu compound ebizwa enokwehla. iifomyula ezinjalo ngalinye ukwimo ezingaphiliyo. Kodwa xa weza ukuzoba up neefomula organic chemistry, kwafuneka ukuba izazinzulu nazo ezininzi iingxaki. Okokuqala, ubunzima abaninzi kubo, amakhulu, okanye amawaka. Kunzima ukumisela indlela ngamava ukuba into enkulu kangaka. Ngoko ke, ekuhambeni kwexesha kwabakho isahlulelo of chemistry kwiziphili uhlalutyo organic. Abaseki bayo ingqalelo Abaphandi Liebig, Wohler, Gay-Lussac kunye Berzelius. Bona, kunye imisebenzi A. M. Butlerova, ezichongwe ubukho isomers - izakhi babe ubume efanayo ubunjani kunye neenkcukacha zamanani, kodwa zahluke isakhiwo neempawu molecule. Kungenxa yoko le nto ubume oganikhi khompawundi wavakalisa namhlanje enokwehla beemeko olupheleleyo okanye yinto enye ifomula noshowo.

Ezi zithinteli - uphawu uphawu kwaye ezikhethekileyo yona chemistry ephilayo. ezibhalwe fomyula basebenzisa oodwi, oluyintambo imichiza. umz, butane incitshisiwe ifomula noshowo kuya kuba ifomu CH ₃ - CH ₂ - CH ₂ - CH _3. formula noshowo Pheleleyo ebonisa zonke iibhondi yemichiza akhoyo kule molecule.

Kwakhona kukho indlela zokurekhodisha iifomyula ngemolekyula ze-oganikhi khompawundi. Inyondla iyafana enokwehla ukusuka ezingaphiliyo. Kuba butane, umzekelo, iya kuba: C ₄ H _10. Oko kukuthi, ifomula eziphilayo kunika uluvo lokuba kuphela malunga nokuqulunqwa ubunjani kunye ubungakanani ezimbaxa. zibonakalisa lokwakheka ulwalamano kwi molecule, ngoko ingasetyenziswa ukuqikelela ukuziphatha elizayo kunye neempawu eekhemikhali kweziyobisi. Zizo ezi izinto oye chemistry organic. Iifomula abhaliweyo naluphi na uhlobo, ngamnye kubo buyinyaniso.

Iintlobo ukusabela organic chemistry

Kukho kudidi ethile uhlobo reactions chemistry organic yenzeke. Kwaye ezinye zezi zokuhlelwa, ngezizathu ezahlukeneyo. Cinga ezona ziphambili.

IiNdlela yendlela kwemichiza kwi iindlela ukusekwa uqhekeke nabangamakhoboka:

• okanye homolytic olukhulu;
• heterolytic okanye ionic.

Indlela abasabela yeendidi zinguquko:

• chain olukhulu;
• endaweni aliphatic nucleophilic;
• endaweni elimnandi nucleophilic;
• ukususwa reaction;
• Ngaphezu electrophilic;
• amafu;
• cyclization;
• kufakwe electrophilic;
• basabela ngokutsha.

Ngendlela run reaction (esuthwini) yaye umyalelo entshukumo basabela njani kwakhona ngamanye amaxesha ngokweendidi. Ezi iimpawu ezingundoqo reactions leyo nobume organic. Ithiyori echaza iinkcukacha ikhosi nganye sokungamelani lwekhemikhali, kuye kwavulwa phakathi kwenkulungwane XX, naqiniswa eya kuthi yongezwe nangoku yonke kwafunyanwa ezintsha yokuqaphela.

Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba abasabela jikelele chemistry ephilayo uqhubeke phantsi kweemeko ezilawulwa yengqongqo yona ngakumbi kunokuba chemistry ezingaphiliyo. Oku kubangelwa kuzinziswa ngakumbi iimolekyuli ngenxa ukuyilwa ngaphakathi kunye amakhonco omeleleyo aphakathi. Ngoko ke, phantse akukho ukusabela ngokupheleleyo ningazidubi ngokuphengulula ubushushu, uxinzelelo okanye isicelo lo kuvala.

Le nkcazelo yanamhlanje Chemistry Organic

Ngokubanzi, uphuhliso organic chemistry behamba ngendlela ebanzi kangangeenkulungwane eziliqela. It efunde isixa esikhulu ulwazi malunga izinto, izakhiwo zazo kunye abasabela ngazo bakwazi ukujoyina. izigidi kuhlelwe of luncedo kunye nezinto ezifunekayo nje ekrwada ezisetyenziswa imingxilo ngemingxilo inzululwazi, ubuchwepheshe kunye noshishino. Ingcamango organic chemistry namhlanje ibonwa njengento izukileyo ezinkulu, abaninzi kunye nezintsonkothileyo, ezahlukeneyo ebalulekileyo.

Ngelo xesha, le nkcazo lokuqala eli candelo inkulu chemistry into wanika Berzelius: ukuba chemistry ukuba ufunda izinto ingadibani eziphilayo. Ukususela ngoko, sele kudlule ixesha elininzi, wenza izinto ezifunyaniswe ezininzi, kwaye ziyaphunyezwa kudizwe inani elikhulu iindlela iinkqubo vnutrihimicheskih. Ngenxa yoko, namhlanje kukho umahluko oko ukwakheka ephilayo. Ukuzimisela inikwe: ukwakheka carbon kunye iikhompawundi zayo, neendlela zabo yokuqaphela.